Sailing Association of Intermountain Lakes

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Sailing Terms

Sailing is distinguished by its unique terminology. Some of the sailing vocabulary comes from long tradition; other words arose because their was a need to things not found in other fields. Click here to see definitions of the most essential.

Racing Formats

There are three basic racing formats:

• Fleet racing

  Fleet racing is the most common format. Boats are grouped into fleets of (approximately) similar characteristics and each boat races against the others in its fleet.
  

• Match racing

  Boats race two at a time, each against one other in a "match". For more than two boats, a round-robin system has each boat race all the others and the boats are placed by the number of wins in all matches.
   

• Team racing

  A team of (usually 3) boats races against another team. A team wins if the sum of its scores are less than the other team's. For example: 1+3+6=10 and 2+4+5=11. For more than two teams, a round-robin system is used and the number of wins determines places.

Racing Rules

The rules for sailboat racing have some unique features as compared to other sports:

• World-wide consistency: There is one international set of rules for all levels -- children and adults, amateurs and professionals. A racing sailor may go anywhere on the globe and know the rules.
• Self-enforcement:  The competitors enforce the rules among themselves. the protest mechanism exists primarily to settle interpretation disputes.
• Emphasis on sportsmanship: Sailors are expected to play fair and exhibit good sportsmanship.

Most racing, throughout the world, is under the ";Racing Rules of Sailing" (RRS) adopted by the International Sailing Federation (ISAF).  These rules are reviewed quadrenially, to coincide with the Olympic calendar.

Each national authority member of ISAF may adopt certain "prescriptions" to further govern the sport. In the USA, this is US SAILING and it publishes a rulebook including its prescriptions and the ISAF rules.

Other rules, specific to each event, are in documents known as "Notice of Race" (NOR) and "Sailing Instructions" (SIs).

• The NOR contains information and rules to help potential competitors decide whether to enter. (For example, eligible boats, age limits, entry fees, schedule, & prizes.)
   
• The SIs contain specific requirements of the competitors (for example, restricted areas, checking in with race committee, time limits) and the intentions of the race committee (for example, descriptions of signals & marks, courses). The SIs may, by reference, apply additional rules such as state or local laws or regulations. They may also modify certain of the rules in the RRS.
   
• Also, boats in a specific class may adopt "Class Rules" for boats in that class. Class rules typically govern what modifications may be made to the boats and specifications for equipment such as sails.
• Special rules apply to match racing (See Appendix C of the RRS.) & team racing (Appendix D.). Some things are allowed in these formats that are not allowed in fleet racing.
• Special rules also apply to  windsurfers (Appendix B.) and radio-controlled boats (Appendix E.)

Rule Enforcement

Unlike other sports, sailing rules are enforced by the competitors themselves. With some notable exceptions, usually there are no referees or umpires on the water to call fouls. A sailor may hail "Protest" and (for large boats) hoist a red flag to signal his competitor that he believes a rules violation has been committed. The competitor has the option to take an immediate penalty or not; if not, the protestor may file a written protest and ask for a hearing by a protest committee to decide the matter.

Basic Principles

The first rules statement in the RRS is:

Sportsmanship and the Rules

Competitors in the sport of sailing are governed by a body of rules that they are expected to follow and enforce. A fundamental principle of sportsmanship is that when competitors break a rule they will promptly take a penalty, which may be to retire.

Fundamental rules include:

• Helping those in Danger: "A boat or competitor shall give all possible help to any person or vessel in danger."
• Life-Saving Equipment and Personal Buoyancy are required
• Fair Sailing: "A boat and her owner shall compete in compliance with recognized principles of sportsmanship and fair play..."
• Acceptance of the Rules: By racing, sailors agree to be governed by the rules, to accept any penalties imposed, and not to resort to legal courts for rules disputes.
• Decision to Race: "The responsibility for a boat's decision to participate in a race or to continue racing is hers alone."
• Banned Substances and Methods: The Anti-Doping Code

A boat has right-of-way when another boat is required to keep clear of her. Right-of-way rules in the RRS apply only to boats that are racing. Other rules, such as Inland Waterway Rules or International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (ColRegs), also apply to all boats. Here are the right-of-way rules for racers:

• Keep Clear: A boat keeps clear of another if the other boat can sail her course without taking avoiding action or a a boat to leeward can change course in either direction without immediately making contact.
• Opposite tacks (includes jibes): A boat on port tack keeps clear of one on starboard. Which tack is defined as opposite the side the mainsail is on.
• Same tack, overlapped: A boat to windward keeps clear of one to leeward.
• Same tack, not overlapped: A boat clear astern keeps clear of one clear ahead.
• While Tacking: A boat changing tacks keeps clear of a boat not tacking from the time she is head to wind until she is on a close-hauled course. If both boats are tacking at the same time, the one on the port side or clear astern keeps clear.
• Avoiding Collisions: A boat must avoid contact with another if reasonably possible.
• Acquiring Right of Way: When a boat acquires right of way -- except through the other's actions -- she initially gives the other boat room to keep clear.
• Changing Course: When a right-of-way boat changes course, she gives the other room to keep clear.
• Proper Course: A boat coming from clear astern to attain an overlap to leeward of another, may not sail above her proper course -- the course she would sail in the absence of the other boat -- if within two hull lengths. There are exceptions. (This rule replaced "Mast Abeam" several years ago.)
• Starting errors, Penalty turns, Moving astern: Boats returning to re-start, making penalty turns, or sailing backward keep clear of other boats.
• Marks & Obstructions: One complex part of the rules deals with room at marks and obstructions. The short version is that, with exceptions,  inside boats are entitled to room.
• Penalty: A boat that breaks a right-of-way rule may make two turns -- consisting of two tacks & two jibes -- on the water as soon as possible after getting clear of other boats. Exceptions are if the SIs specify a scoring penalty, if she caused injury or serious damage, of she gained a significant advantage. In the latter two, the penalty is to retire or be disqualified.

Other Requirements

• Outside Help: Not permitted, with limited exceptions.
• Propulsion: Only the wind and the water are allowed to move the boat. No motors, sculling, rocking, or pumping sails. (Windsurfers are allowed to pump.)
• Clothing & Equipment: Not to increase weight.
• Penalty Limits: A boat that breaks more than one rule in the same incident need take only one penalty.
• Anchoring, etc.: Must be afloat & off moorings at the Prepatory signal. Afterwards, can only haul out or make fast to bail out, make repairs or reef sails. May anchor, but must recover anchor before continuing.
• Person in Charge: A boat must have a captain.
• Equipment & Crew: Must compete with equipment on board at the Prep signal. No crew to leave unless ill or injured or to help a boat or vessel in danger (or to swim). Crew leaving accidentally must be recovered before the boat continues racing.
• Others omitted for brevity.

Fleet Racing

A fleet can include almost any number of boats, though very large fleets get unwieldy. Fleet racing can be around the buoys  of a lake or harbor, from one harbor to another, or around the world. Racing can be one-design, level-rated or handicapped.

One-Design Racing

When boats are the same in design, build & equipment, they may race as though all were equal in speed. This is the simplest type of racing, depending more on the skills of the sailors than the speeds of the boats. Boats place in the order that they finish; there is no correction or adjustment to determine place. The largest fleets on starting lines are usually seen in World Championships of one-design classes.

One-design classes adopt "class rules" to maintain the similarities of the boats and utilize measurers to ensure the rules are followed. Examples of one-design classes are Star, J-24, Lightning, 470, Laser, and Hobie 16, .

Level-Rated Racing

Level-rated racing works like one-design -- places are determined solely by order of finish --  though boats need not be of the same class.

Handicap Racing

When the boats in a fleet have different designs and speeds, adjustments to their elapsed times for completing the course helps make the racing fairer.

The first boat to finish doesn't necessarily win the race. The goal of the handicap fleet sailor is to "save her time" against the competition; knowing where one stands during the race is a difficult task.

There are two basic types of handicaps used:

• Time-on-Distance (ToD): When the total distance of the race's length can be determined, the "time correction" can be seconds per mile subtracted from (or added to) the elapsed time to yield a "corrected time". An example of ToD handicapping is the standard PHRF (Performance Handicap Racing Fleet) system, in which boats' handicaps are stated in seconds per mile.
   
• Time-on-Time (ToT): When the distance isn't known, the elapsed time is multiplied by a "time correction factor" (TCF). ToT handicapping is said to be fairer across a broader range of wind speeds. One example of ToT handicapping is the US Portsmouth Yardstick. In the SAIL region, a ToT version of PHRF is used, in which the rating is mathematically converted to a TCF.
   
• Combination: Some handicapping systems use a combination of ToD & ToT, to help make the racing fairer in more conditions. These systems tend to be more complex.

Handicap Example: Let's consider two boats, a Lightning & a Buccaneer,  in a Portsmouth-handicapped fleet. The TCF formula for  Portsmouth is: 100 divided by the rating.

Assume the Lightning finishes the race in exactly 60 minutes, the Buccaneer one (1) second later. Here's how they are scored:

In this simplified example, the Buccaneer beats the Lightning by a little over 3 1/2 seconds.

Due to the number of calculations needed and pressure to produce results promptly, most race committees score handicap fleets with a computer and specialized software.

There are many handicapping systems in use and more are being developed daily. To review them is beyond our scope here. Whether any handicapping system can achieve some objective standard of fairness is a continuing debate.

Match Racing

The simplicity and "machismo" of one boat versus one opponent -- as in the America's Cup -- appeals to many.   Some special rules apply to match racing; see Appendix C of the RRS. For match racing to be successful, boats must be sufficiently similar that handicapping is not needed. A one-design class, the "America's Cup Class", was been created for a recent version of this series. Scoring is based on the number of won matches. A match-race event may have elimination rounds, semifinals and finals.

Team Racing

Team racing is an exciting format -- combining elements of roller derby and tag-team wrestling with sailing -- in which members of one team try to help their team mates, sometimes by interfering with the other team. (See Appendix D of the RRS.) Team racing is best done in one-design classes.

Starting

Races start on a timed sequence. A "warning signal" -- consisting of the hoisting of a class flag & a sound -- is usually five minutes before the start.  One minute later, comes a "prepatory" signal (usually a code flag "P") & sound. One minute before the start, the Prep flag  is lowered with a long sound. At the start, the class flag is lowered with another sound. The flags govern, sounds may be late or missing.

Postponement: The RC may postpone the start at any time before the starting signal by raising flag "AP"  and making two sounds. A new starting sequence begins from the next warning signal.

A boat starts when any part crosses the starting line from pre-course side to course side after the starting signal. If any part of a boat is on the course side before the signal, she must return and re-start. If flag "I" has been raised as the preparatory signal, she must sail around an end of the line to re-start. If flag "Z"  has been raised as the Prep, she takes a 20% scoring penalty. If a black flag has been raised as the Prep, an early boat is disqualified from racing.

Warning Signal, Class Flag varies

"Z", 20% Penalty

A boat starts when any part of her hull, crew, or equipment crosses the line after the starting signal. She need not cross the line completely, but this is usually fastest.

The objectives of the starting boats are to be on the line, at its favored end, at full speed, and with no obstructions to their wind. Some of these goals may be in conflict.

Starting Line

A starting line is between two points, often laid out as a buoy and a "line flag" on the race committee boat. It has a "course side", nearest the first mark, and a "pre-course side".

Race Courses

The racers must sail around a course, usually displayed by the RC signal boat or described in the SIs. The course consists of one or more marks, the sides on which they are to be left, and their order. If a side is not specified, it's assumed the mark is left to port (the left side of the boat).

Popular courses are windward/leeward and triangle. The first mark is usually directly upwind of the starting line. A triangle includes a "wing" or "reach" mark outside the line of the wind direction. Combinations are sometimes used, as are variations on those shown below.

Windward/Leeward

W/L + Triangle

Trapezoid

A mark may be any object, but is often a buoy surrounded by navigable water. A boat may not touch a mark and, if it does, must take a penalty consisting of a complete turn. Two types of combination marks are often seen:

• Offset mark -- often placed near the windward mark, this safety measure keeps boats rounding the windward mark from immediately turning downwind into approaching traffic
• Gate mark -- at the leeward end of the course, boats sail between two marks to give them an option and reduce congestion. They may round close to the mark on the left side, leaving it to port, or on the right side to starboard. The choice depends on which they think will be fastest and put them on the best tack for the next leg.

The "string rule" applies to sailing the course: If an imaginary string representing the boat's course were pulled tight, would it touch all the required marks on the correct sides? If a boat sails on the wrong side of a mark, she must "unwind her string" & pass it on the correct side.

Distance Race Courses

Many famous races are long-distances, with few or no marks other than start & finish lines. They're often known as "point-to-point" races. Examples include the TransPac from Los Angeles to Hawaii, & Sidney-Hobart in Australia.

Finishes

Finish lines are laid perpendicular to the course from the last mark. A boat finishes if any part of her hull, crew, or equipment in normal position crosses the finish line in the direction from the last mark. If crew or equipment is not in normal position, the boat finishes when some part in normal position crosses the line. If a boat crosses the line in the opposite direction, she has not finished and must unwind her string before finishing.

Strategy

Strategy consists of sailing the fastest route around the course. Sailors try to predict changes and differences in wind direction, wind speed, and currents and use them to either shorten the distance to be sailed or increase boat speed.

• Wind Speed -- In general, a boat sails faster in stronger wind than lighter. Wind speed may not be the same across the race course, so sailors try for the places with stronger winds.
• Wind direction -- The science and art of predicting the inevitable changes in wind direction are beyond our scope here. It's enough to say that getting it right can dramatically reduce the distance a boat has to sail; getting it wrong results in sailing the "great circle route".
• Current -- On lakes, the current is seldom a factor; it comes more into play in rivers and bays, where it can significantly affect a boat's progress toward the next mark. The general rules are:
  • Avoid the strongest foul current (taking you away from where you want to go).
  • Seek the strongest fair current (taking you where you want to go).
  • Allow for side currents; your course made good will be different than the boat's heading.

Tactics

Tactics are used for short-term advantage against one boat, or sometimes more.  Tactics fall into three categories:

• Staying between the opponents and the next mark, known as a "loose cover". "They can't beat you if they have to sail through you."
• Slowing the opponents by wind off your sails ("dirty air" or blanketing) or turbulent wake off your hull. This is known as a "tight cover". However, a boat conducting a tight cover also slows itself, opening opportunities for other opponents.
• Placing your boat in a right-of-way position, forcing the opponent into a less-advantageous position. For example, a boat on starboard tack has a tactical advantage over one on port; the port tack boat. must avoid the starboard one, without forcing starboard to change course. 

The problem with tactics is that they are useful only against one, two or three boats. While focusing on those, other boats may pass.

Tactics are most useful for gaining freedom to execute your strategy and at starts and finishes.

Starting tactics

The objective is to start in front or get there quickly. The boats behind at a congested start receive dirty air and turbulent wakes and will fall further and further behind. 

Finishing tactics

At the finish line, the race is over. Tactical moves carry less long-term consequences. Now is the time to beat that one boat.

Boat handling and boat speed

The most reliable way to win races is to "sail fast". Variations in boats' potential speeds are less than the sailors' ability to reach that potential. Boat handling is mentioned first because a race requires many turns, which usually slow a boat; good boat handling reduces the amount of slowing. Next is straight-line boat speed, which requires skilled driving and a knowledge of -- and constant attention to -- sail and boat trim.

Scoring

To determine the overall places for a regatta of multiple races,  each race is scored  and the scores accumulated. Usually, the "low point" scoring system is used: 1st place gets one point, 2nd gets two and so on. Boats which did not start, did not finish, etc. get points based on the SIs or the number of entries plus one. Unless the SIs say differently, each boat excludes her worst score. Excluded scores are also called "discards" or "throw-outs".

Ties  are broken by (1) arranging the scores (not using throw-outs) from best to worst; at the first point where there is a difference, the boat with the better score wins the tie, and (2) if a tie remains, by their scores in the final race.

Race Organization

Races are usually organized by clubs or groups that are members of their national authority (US SAILING). The "organizing authority" has final say over the racing, publishes the NOR and appoints the race committee (RC) &, possibly the protest committee (PC).

Race Committee

The race committee (RC) oversees and manages the racing, writes & publishes the SIs, sets the starting & finishing lines,  designates the courses to be sailed, signals the starting sequences, records the finishes, and scores the races. It may change or shorten the course, abandon (stop) a race, or protest competitors. The RC is also bound by the rules. Its job is to provide fun, fair, and safe racing.

Protest Committee

The Protest Committee (PC) can be part of the race committee or separate. Its job is to hear & decide protests and requests for redress, according to the rules. Anyone who has an interest in the outcome of a protest hearing may not serve on the PC.  Most protest hearings are informal and emphasize brevity. (Results can not be final while protests are pending.)

• A protest represents an allegation by a competitor, the RC, or the PC that a boat has infringed a rule. The parties to the protest are the representatives of (1) the boat protesting and (2) the one being protested. The most usual penalty for an upheld protest is to disqualify the rule-breaker from the race. (It may determine that both parties broke rules and disqualify them both.)
   
• A request for redress is a request to improve a boat's score, based on an allegation that her score was substantially worsened -- through no fault of her own -- by either a competitor or the race committee. The boat requesting redress is the party.
   
• A party who doesn't like the PC's decision may appeal to US SAILING. The appeal will be heard on the basis of the facts found by the PC, but whether the facts found are sufficient or lead to the conclusions and the interpretations of the rules will be decided by the appeals committee, which may uphold the original decision, direct the PC to re-hear the protest or redress request, or give a new decision.

The Protest Committee acts, in some respects, like a court. A protest hearing involves several parts, the first of which is to determine the validity of the protest or request for redress.  Each party has rights, including time to read the protest and prepare a case, the right to be present for all evidence, the right to present witnesses and ask questions of witnesses, the right not to have an interested party on the protest committee, and the right to receive the decision in writing.

Umpires & On-the-Water Judges

In a few events, rules violations may be immediately called by umpires or on-the-water judges during the racing. In match racing, a boat may ask the umpire to referee a suspected right-of-way foul. Or, on-the-water judges may signal illegal propulsion infringements.

Umpiring is a recent development in sailing, intended to decide questions immediately. Its disadvantage is the additional resource requirement -- more officials and RC boats. It is also controversial because it goes against the principle of self-enforcement.